Encyclopedia entries

Originally published in the Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. 15 (1972), pp. 1103-10. THEOLOGY. Introduction. Defined by Richard Hooker, the Renaissance theologian, as “the science of things divine,” theology (from the Greek word theos, “God,” and logos, “word,” “doctrine”) is a sustained, rational discourse on God, His nature, His relationship to man and the universe, the manner in…...

Originally published in the Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. 15 (1972), pp. 498-502. Sukkot in Rabbinic Literature. Two special observances are mentioned in the Book of Leviticus (Lev. 23: 39-43): that the people should dwell in booths for seven days, so “that your generations may know that I made the Children of Israel to dwell in booths, when…...

Originally published in the Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. 14 (1972), pp. 1370-4. SHEMA, READING OF, the twice daily recitation of the declaration of God’s unity, called the Shema (“Hear”) after the first word in Deuteronomy 6: 4; also called Keri’at Shema (“the reading of the Shema”). As it had developed by at least as early as the…...

Originally published in the Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. 16 (1972), pp. 625-8. Attitude To Women. The classical writings of Judaism, almost exclusively written by men, and encompassing a period of over 2,000 years, naturally depict a variety of views on women. It is impossible, therefore, to speak of a single Jewish attitude to women. Opinions were affected…...

Originally published in the Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. 15 (1972), pp. 1246-55. TORAH, READING OF. History. The practice of reading the Pentateuch (Torah) in public is undoubtedly ancient. The sources, however, do not permit the definite tracing of the historical development of the custom. The command to assemble the people at the end of every seven years…...

Originally published in the Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. 15 (1972), pp. 453-8. STUDY. The study of the Torah (talmud Torah) as a supreme religious duty is one of the most typical and far-reaching ideas of rabbinic Judaism. Talmudic literature is full of references to the mitzvah of Torah study, especially of the difficult halakhic portions which require…...

Originally published in the Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. 14 (1972), pp. 1591-3. Rabbinic Views. The usual rabbinic term for sin is averah, from the root avar (“to pass over”; i.e., sin is a rejection of God’s will). The rabbis rarely speak of sin in the abstract but usually of specific sins. There are sins of commission and omission—in…...

Originally published in the Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. 14 (1972), pp. 1319-22. SHAVUOT (Heb. שָבוּעות; “weeks,” Pentecost, “the 50th day”), the festival celebrated on the sixth of Sivan (and also on the seventh outside Israel). The biblical names for the festival are: “Hag Shavuot” (“Feast of Weeks,” Ex. 34: 22; Deut. 16: 10); “Yom ha-Bikkurim” (“The Day of…...

Originally published in the Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. 14 (1972), pp. 562-7. In the Apocrypha. According to the Book of Maccabees, the Sabbath was at one time observed so strictly that on one occasion during the Maccabean revolt, the Jews allowed themselves to be killed rather than resist on the Sabbath (I Macc. 2: 31-38). Later, it was…...

Originally published in the Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. 14 (1972), pp. 305-10. ROSH HA-SHANAH (Heb. ראשׁ הַשָׁנָה), the Jewish New Year, the autumn festival celebrated on the first and second days of Tishri. In the Bible. The name Rosh Ha-Shanah as it is used in the Bible (Ezek. 40: 1) simply means the beginning of the year, and…...

Originally published in the Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. 14 (1972), pp. 180-4. RIGHTEOUSNESS, the fulfillment of all legal and moral obligations. In rabbinic literature the term zedakah means “charity,” “almsgiving,” “practical benevolence,” but does not refer to righteousness in general for which there is no special term. However, the name zaddik, “righteous man” (pl. zaddikim), is found throughout…...

Originally published in the Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. 13 (1972), pp. 1002-6. In Modern Times (From the Beginning of the 19th Century). THE MODERN SERMON. Part of the aim of Zunz’s most famous work, Gottesdienstliche Vortraege der Juden (1832), was to demonstrate, when this was challenged by the Prussian government (under the influence of Orthodox groups who saw…...

Originally published in the Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. 13 (1972), pp. 1390-5. PURIM (Heb. פּוּרִים), the feast instituted, according to the Book of Esther (9: 20-28), by Mordecai to celebrate the deliverance of the Jews from Haman’s plot to kill them. Purim (Akk. pūrū, “lots”) is so called (Esth. 9: 26) after the lots cast by Haman in…...

Originally published in the Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. 13 (1972), pp. 981-4. In the Apocryphal Literature. There are a number of references to prayer in the apocryphal books, including the idea of the living offering up prayers on behalf of the dead (II Mac. 12: 44-45). The apocryphal work, The Prayer of Manasseh, is a penitential prayer. The…...

Originally published in the Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. 14 (1972), pp. 74-5. Rabbinic Views. The rabbis are eloquent in describing the significance of repentance. It is one of the things created before the world itself (Pes. 54a); it reaches to the very Throne of Glory (Yoma 86a); it prolongs a man’s life and brings on the Redemption (Yoma…...

Originally published in the Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. 13 (1972), pp. 198-9. In Post-Talmudic Jewish Thought. The medieval Jewish thinkers discuss peace under the two headings of world peace and of the avoidance of internal strife and contention in the Jewish community. Jews in the Middle Ages had no voice in international affairs. World peace in the here…...

Originally published in the Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. 13 (1972), pp. 163-9. PASSOVER (Heb. פֶּסַח, Pesah), a spring festival, beginning on the 15th day of Nisan, lasting seven days in Israel and eight in the Diaspora. It commemorates the Exodus from Egypt. The first and seventh days (the first two and last two in the Diaspora) are yom…...

Originally published in the Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. 10 (1972), pp. 383-97. JUDAISM, the religion, philosophy, and way of life of the Jews. DEFINITION The term Judaism is first found among the Greek-speaking Jews of the first century C.E. (Judaismes, see II Macc. 2: 21; 8: 1; 14: 38; Gal. 1: 13-14). Its Hebrew equivalent, Yahadut, found only…...

Originally published in the Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. 12 (1972), pp. 393-5; 399-402. RABBINIC VIEW A marked ambivalence is to be observed in the Jewish tradition with regard to the personality of Moses. On the one hand, Moses is the greatest of all the Jewish teachers, a powerfully numinous figure, the man with whom God speaks “face…...

Originally published in the Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. 12 (1972), pp. 268-9. MONTEFIORE, CLAUDE JOSEPH GOLDSMID (1858-1938), theologian and leader of Liberal Judaism in England. Montefiore was a great-nephew of Sir Moses Montefiore and a grandson of Isaac Lyon Goldsmid. He studied at Balliol College, Oxford, where he came under the influence of the master of Balliol,…...